Author: Dr Odet M. Aszkenasy

Nutritional challenges represent a significant but often underappreciated aspect of supporting autistic children. While parents and clinicians typically focus on behavioural and developmental concerns, feeding difficulties and nutritional deficiencies can substantially impact a child’s health, energy levels and quality of life.

Prevalence of Nutritional Issues

Research consistently demonstrates that autistic children experience nutritional problems at higher rates than their neurotypical peers. A recent meta-analysis found that autistic children consume significantly lower amounts of protein, calcium, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin K, folate, riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin compared to typically developing children.

Studies comparing autistic children to their typically developing siblings provide a useful comparison by controlling for family dietary patterns and socioeconomic factors. One approach to quantifying overall nutritional inadequacy uses a cumulative deficiency score: for each nutrient consumed below the recommended daily intake, researchers calculate the percentage shortfall, then add these together across all nutrients. Using this method, one study found that autistic children had cumulative deficits totalling 342.5% compared to 275.9% in typically developing children—meaning the sum of all their individual nutrient shortfalls was significantly higher. This doesn’t mean any single child is deficient in “342% of nutrients” (which would be impossible), but rather that when you add up small and large deficits across multiple nutrients (calcium, vitamin D, iron, folate, etc.), the total shortfall is substantially greater in autistic children. Paradoxically, despite these deficiencies, many autistic children present with higher body mass index than their peers, suggesting they consume adequate calories but from a nutritionally limited range of foods.

The most commonly reported deficiencies include:

• Vitamin D: Consistently lower across multiple studies
• B vitamins: Including folate, B12, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), and niacin
• Vitamin A: Associated with autism traits
• Calcium and iron: Related to restricted dietary variety
• Essential fatty acids: Particularly omega-3 fatty acids

In a recent review of case reports, vitamin D deficiency was found in 25% of cases, vitamin A in 24.8%, B-vitamins in 18%, calcium in 10.8%, and iron in 9.6%. Concerningly, severe deficiency diseases once thought eradicated—such as scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) and beriberi (thiamine deficiency)—are being documented in case reports of autistic children with extremely restricted diets.

Relationship with ARFID

The relationship between autism and Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID) is increasingly recognised as clinically important. A recent meta-analysis found that autism diagnoses occurred in 16.27% of individuals with ARFID, while ARFID prevalence in autistic groups was 11.41%. This represents a 15-fold increase compared to the general population.

In a large autism cohort study, approximately 21% of autistic children met criteria for ARFID, with an additional 17% of their parents also at heightened risk, suggesting both genetic susceptibility and lifelong persistence of feeding difficulties.

ARFID in autism differs from typical “picky eating” in several important ways:

1. Sensory sensitivities: Many autistic children experience heightened sensory responses to food textures, colours, smells, and temperatures
2. Need for sameness: Rigid adherence to specific brands, presentation styles, or eating routines
3. Fear of adverse consequences: Anxiety about choking, vomiting, or gastrointestinal discomfort
4. Lack of interest in eating: Some children show minimal appetite or food motivation

The co-occurrence is clinically significant because ARFID-level restriction leads to more severe nutritional consequences than typical food selectivity, and standard feeding interventions may need modification for autistic children who struggle with change and new experiences.

Clinical Monitoring

Given the high prevalence of nutritional issues, systematic monitoring should be part of routine autism care.

Initial Assessment

A comprehensive nutritional assessment should include:

1. Dietary history: Use food frequency questionnaires and 3-day food diaries to assess variety and adequacy
2. Anthropometric measurements: Height, weight, BMI, and growth trajectory monitoring
3. Clinical examination: Looking for signs of specific deficiencies (e.g., pallor, poor wound healing, dental problems)
4. Gastrointestinal symptoms: Constipation, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, and reflux are common comorbidities
5. Feeding behaviour assessment: Questionnaires such as the Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (BAMBI) can quantify difficulties

Biochemical Monitoring

While routine screening of all autistic children is not yet standard practice, targeted testing should be considered for:

• Children with very restricted diets (fewer than 20 accepted foods)
• Those on restrictive therapeutic diets (gluten-free, casein-free, ketogenic)
• Children with faltering growth or weight loss
• Those with clinical signs of deficiency

Recent evidence suggests autistic children are at high risk for micronutrient deficiencies even with normal growth parameters, indicating that anthropometric measurements alone are insufficient for detecting nutritional problems.

Useful investigations include:

• Full blood count (for anaemia)
• Ferritin (iron stores)
• Vitamin D (25-hydroxyvitamin D)
• Vitamin B12 and folate
• Calcium, magnesium, zinc
• Consider vitamin A in children with very restricted diets

Ongoing Monitoring

Children with identified nutritional issues or significant feeding difficulties should be monitored at 3-6 month intervals, with repeat biochemical testing guided by initial findings and dietary changes.

Management Approaches

Nutritional management in autism requires an individualised, neuroaffirming approach:

1. Psychological and Behavioural Interventions

Evidence-based psychological therapies specifically designed for ARFID are now showing promise, though they often require adaptation for autistic children to be neuro-affirming and effective.

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for ARFID (CBT-AR):
For older children and adolescents (typically 10+ years) with sufficient language skills, CBT-AR is an evidence-based approach that addresses the maintaining mechanisms of restricted eating, such as sensory sensitivity, lack of interest, and fear of negative consequences (e.g., choking).

• Evidence: Research indicates that CBT-AR is feasible and acceptable for young people, leading to significant improvements in ARFID severity and weight gain.
• Autism Adaptation: Standard CBT-AR may need modification to accommodate autistic thinking styles, such as using visual supports, slowing the pace of exposure, and validating rather than challenging sensory experiences.

Parent-Led and Family-Based Treatment (FBT-AR):
For younger children or those who may struggle with individual talking therapy, parent-led approaches empower parents to support their child’s nutritional intake while managing anxiety around new foods.

• Evidence: Studies on Family-Based Treatment for ARFID demonstrate its effectiveness in improving weight and dietary volume in children aged 5–12.
• Parent Training Protocols: Recent research supports “parent-therapist” models where clinicians train parents in specific strategies to use at home, reducing the need for the child to be in constant therapy sessions.
• Approach: This involves parents taking a supportive lead in mealtime decisions and “scaffolding” exposures to new foods, preventing avoidance while maintaining a supportive, non-coercive environment.

Behavioural Feeding Strategies:
These structured approaches can be integrated into parent-led care, adapted to respect autistic sensory profiles:

• Gradual exposure: Low-pressure introduction to new foods through play or exploration, without forced consumption
• Food chaining: Introducing foods similar in texture, colour, or flavour to accepted “safe foods”
• Sensory-based feeding therapy: Addressing underlying sensory processing differences rather than just behaviour
• Mealtime structure: Consistent routines and expectations to reduce anxiety
• Neuroaffirming goals: Focusing on health and comfort rather than forcing compliance with neurotypical eating norms

These interventions work best when implemented by trained feeding therapists in collaboration with families. It’s important to note that progress can be slow, and maintaining already-accepted foods is as important as adding new ones.

2. Nutritional Supplementation

When dietary modification alone is insufficient:

• Multivitamin/mineral supplements: Can address multiple micronutrient gaps
• Vitamin D: Often requires supplementation in UK climate, especially with limited dairy and outdoor exposure
• Calcium: Consider if dairy products rejected; choose appropriate formulation (calcium carbonate typically preferred)
• Iron: If deficient, with appropriate monitoring
• Omega-3 fatty acids: Some evidence for behavioural benefits, though results are mixed

Supplementation should be individualised based on identified deficiencies rather than empirical. Autistic children may have sensory difficulties with tablets or liquid supplements, so formulation matters—chewables, powders that can be hidden in accepted foods, or patches may be necessary options.

3. Dietary Modifications

Several therapeutic diets are commonly tried in autism, though evidence remains limited:

Gluten-free/casein-free (GFCF) diet: While some families report improvements in gastrointestinal symptoms or behaviour, large-scale randomised controlled trials have not definitively proven efficacy, and these diets risk nutritional deficiencies in fibre, iron, calcium, and B vitamins if not carefully planned.

Ketogenic diet: Some case reports show promise, but strict adherence is challenging, and there are risks of nutrient deficiencies, gastrointestinal discomfort, and kidney stones requiring close monitoring.

If families wish to try elimination diets, involvement of a registered dietitian is essential to ensure nutritional adequacy and proper implementation. Random elimination without professional guidance frequently worsens nutritional status.

4. Addressing Gastrointestinal Issues

Many autistic children experience constipation, diarrhoea, reflux, or abdominal pain. Treating these symptoms may improve appetite and food acceptance:

• Adequate hydration and fibre (introduced slowly)
• Probiotics (limited evidence but generally safe)
• Medical management of constipation or reflux as needed
• Investigation for food intolerances if symptoms suggest (not routine)

5. Family-Centred Care

Parents of autistic children with feeding difficulties report high levels of mealtime stress. Support should include:

• Realistic goal-setting
• Reduction of mealtime pressure and battles
• Strategies for family meals despite dietary differences
• Connection with support groups
• Mental health support for parental stress

6. When to Consider Gastrostomy

For a small minority of autistic children, even intensive feeding therapy, psychological interventions, and oral supplementation are not enough to maintain safe nutrition and hydration. In these situations, temporary or long‑term gastrostomy (a feeding tube placed directly into the stomach) can be life‑saving and may actually reduce distress around eating. Studies in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities show that gastrostomy feeding is associated with improved growth, fewer feeding-related problems, and better reported quality of life for both children and caregivers. Clinical guidelines from paediatric nutrition groups therefore recommend gastrostomy as the preferred route for long‑term intragastric feeding in children with neurological or developmental conditions when oral intake is persistently inadequate, provided decisions are made within a multidisciplinary team and with full discussion of risks, benefits, and family preferences. For some families, establishing reliable tube feeding allows pressure to be taken off mealtimes so that oral eating can be slowly rebuilt in a low‑stress, neuroaffirming way, rather than being driven by fear of weight loss.

Outcomes and Prognosis

The long-term nutritional outcomes for autistic children vary considerably:

Short-term interventions: Feeding therapy and sensory-based interventions show promise in improving food acceptance and mealtime experiences, though individual responses vary widely.

Nutritional supplementation: When severe deficiencies are identified and treated, even severe cases have shown symptom resolution or improvement with appropriate micronutrient replacement therapy. However, without addressing underlying restrictive eating patterns, deficiencies are likely to recur.

Persistence into adulthood: Research suggests that feeding difficulties and ARFID symptoms may persist, with up to 17% of parents of autistic children also meeting criteria for ARFID, indicating lifelong risk. This highlights the importance of early intervention and long-term monitoring.

Impact on development: Some research suggests correlations between specific nutrient deficiencies (particularly vitamin A and vitamin D) and autism traits, though causality remains unclear. Addressing nutritional deficiencies is unlikely to “cure” autism but can optimise overall health and potentially improve quality of life.

Need for ongoing support: Current evidence emphasises that sustained intervention and monitoring are essential, as the long-term effects of nutritional interventions and their sustainability require further research.

The Critical Importance of Dental Care

Nutritional challenges in autistic children extend beyond deficiencies and dietary intake to include significant oral health concerns. Research demonstrates that autistic children experience higher rates of dental caries, periodontal disease, and poor oral hygiene compared to their neurotypical peers, with many requiring dental treatment under general anaesthesia due to sensory and anxiety barriers.

Prevalence of Dental Problems

Studies show that autistic children have significantly poorer oral hygiene and higher caries rates compared to controls, with boys particularly affected. The relationship between nutritional issues and dental health is bidirectional: restricted diets high in processed, sugary foods increase caries risk, while sensory sensitivities and anxiety make oral hygiene maintenance difficult.

Autistic children commonly exhibit oral habits including bruxism (teeth grinding), tongue thrusting, picking at the gingiva, and lip biting. Combined with difficulties in brushing and flossing, these factors create substantial oral health risks that require proactive management.

The Need for Specialist-Trained Practitioners

Challenges in providing adequate dental care for autistic individuals are recognised by parents, caregivers, and dental practitioners, leading to a higher prevalence of unaddressed dental needs. Major barriers include sensory sensitivities, communication difficulties, and a shortage of autism-trained dental professionals.

In the UK, there is now a legal requirement for healthcare professionals, including dental staff, to receive autism-specific training appropriate to their role, following the Oliver McGowan Mandatory Training initiative introduced in 2022. This legislation arose from tragic circumstances where lack of understanding about autism led to serious harm.

Why specialist training matters:

Research demonstrates that dentists with prior experience or training in managing autistic patients achieve better treatment success and higher parental confidence in dental care approaches. Specialist training encompasses:

• Understanding sensory sensitivities and how they manifest in the dental environment
• Effective communication strategies tailored to autistic individuals
• Neuroaffirming techniques that respect neurodiversity
• Environmental modifications to reduce anxiety and sensory overload
• Collaboration with families and caregivers as partners in care
• Use of desensitisation programmes and visual supports

Studies show that sensory-adapted dental environments, where modifications such as dimmed lighting, reduced noise, and careful attention to sensory input are implemented, result in reduced physiological stress and distress compared to standard dental settings.

Practical Strategies for Dental Care

For families managing dental care for autistic children:

1. Seek autism-trained practitioners: Look for dentists who have completed autism-specific training or practices designated as Certified Autism Centers. In the UK, community dental services and special care dentistry services provide specialist care for those who cannot access general dental practice.
2. Prepare for visits: Use visual supports, social stories, and familiarisation visits to reduce anxiety. Some practices offer pre-appointment tours and sensory-friendly appointment times (first or last appointment of the day).
3. Communicate needs clearly: Inform the dental team about specific sensory sensitivities, communication preferences, triggers, and calming strategies. Many practices now record these preferences to avoid families having to repeat information at each visit.
4. Home oral hygiene adaptations: Consider specialised toothbrushes (three-sided brushes, U-shaped whole mouth brushes), alternative toothpaste flavours or unflavoured options, and visual timers for two-minute brushing.
5. Address sensory issues: Allow children to bring comfort items, noise-cancelling headphones, sunglasses for bright lights, or tablets to watch during treatment. Weighted blankets can provide calming sensory input.
6. Build gradually: For children with significant anxiety, desensitisation programmes that gradually introduce dental experiences (sitting in the chair, looking at instruments, brief examinations) can be highly effective.

Integration with Nutritional Care

Dental health should be integrated into the broader nutritional management plan. Paediatricians and dietitians working with autistic children should:

• Coordinate with dental professionals, particularly when dietary modifications are planned
• Consider the dental implications of restricted diets (e.g., calcium for tooth development)
• Address the oral health consequences of high-sugar selective diets
• Support families in establishing oral hygiene routines alongside dietary interventions
• Recognise that untreated dental pain or disease may further restrict already limited food acceptance

The high rates of dental treatment under general anaesthesia in this population underscore the importance of prevention through early intervention, specialist-trained practitioners, and family support.

Practical Recommendations

For parents and paediatricians, a pragmatic approach includes:

1. Screen routinely: Ask about diet variety, mealtime difficulties, and gastrointestinal symptoms at health checks
2. Quantify the problem: Use structured questionnaires to assess feeding difficulties systematically
3. Monitor growth: Regular height, weight, and BMI measurements plotted on growth charts
4. Consider testing: Low threshold for biochemical screening in children with restricted diets
5. Refer appropriately: Early involvement of dietitians and feeding therapists for significant difficulties; refer to specialist dental services when needed
6. Avoid unsupported interventions: Be cautious about expensive supplements or elimination diets without evidence or professional guidance
7. Support families: Acknowledge the stress and provide realistic expectations about progress
8. Take a long view: Nutritional management in autism is typically a marathon, not a sprint
9. Coordinate dental care: Ensure autistic children have access to autism-trained dental practitioners and integrate oral health into overall care planning

Conclusion

Nutritional issues in autistic children are common, clinically significant, and amenable to intervention. The interplay between sensory sensitivities, preference for routine, ARFID, and gastrointestinal symptoms creates complex feeding challenges that require individualised, multidisciplinary management.

While there is no single “autism diet,” ensuring nutritional adequacy through careful monitoring, targeted supplementation when needed, and evidence-based, neuroaffirming feeding interventions can improve outcomes. As research in this area continues to evolve, the focus should remain on practical strategies that optimise nutrition, reduce family stress, and support the overall health and development of autistic children.

Key References

1. Alhrbi, M., et al. (2025). Nutritional Status of Children Diagnosed With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.70099
   • This comprehensive meta-analysis compared nutritional status between autistic children and typically developing children, finding significantly lower intakes of protein, calcium, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin K, folate, riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin in the autism group.
2. Sader, M., Weston, A., Buchan, K., et al. (2025). The Co-Occurrence of Autism and Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID): A Prevalence-Based Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 58(3), 473-488. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.24369
   • This meta-analysis of 21 studies (7,442 participants) found autism diagnoses in 16.27% of those with ARFID and ARFID prevalence of 11.41% in autistic groups.
3. Daniel, K.S., Jiang, Q., & Wood, M.S. (2025). The Increasing Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder in the U.S. and Its Implications for Pediatric Micronutrient Status: A Narrative Review of Case Reports and Series. Nutrients, 17(6), 990. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17060990
   • Analysed 44 cases from 27 articles documenting severe micronutrient deficiencies in autistic children, with vitamin D deficiency in 25% of cases, vitamin A in 24.8%, B-vitamins in 18%, calcium in 10.8%, and iron in 9.6%.
4. Al-Beltagi, M. (2024). Nutritional Management and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review. World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 13(4), 99649. https://doi.org/10.5409/wjcp.v13.i4.99649
   • Systematic review of 316 studies examining dietary interventions, supplements, feeding therapy, and behavioural strategies, emphasising the need for personalised, multidisciplinary approaches.
5. Koomar, T., Thomas, T.R., Pottschmidt, N.R., Lutter, M., & Michaelson, J.J. (2021). Estimating the Prevalence and Genetic Risk Mechanisms of ARFID in a Large Autism Cohort. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 668297. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.668297
   • First prevalence estimate of ARFID in a large autism cohort (SPARK study, N=5,157 probands), finding approximately 21% of autistic children and up to 17% of their parents at heightened risk for ARFID.
6. Nogueira-de-Almeida, C.A., de Araújo, L.A., da V Ued, F., et al. (2025). Nutritional Factors and Therapeutic Interventions in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Narrative Review. Children, 12(2), 202. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12020202
   • Comprehensive narrative review exploring how nutritional, gastrointestinal, social, and epigenetic factors interact in autism, with implications for clinical management and intervention strategies.
7. Shmaya, Y., Eilat-Adar, S., Leitner, Y., Reif, S., & Gabis, L. (2015). Nutritional deficiencies and overweight prevalence among children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 38, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.12.016
   • Study comparing autistic children to their typically developing siblings, demonstrating significantly higher cumulative nutritional deficiencies in the autism group across multiple micronutrients, while simultaneously showing higher BMI.
8. Shaik, K.F., Saddu, S.C., & Manasa, R. (2024). Challenges and Solutions in Managing Dental Problems in Children with Autism. World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 14(3), 106778. https://doi.org/10.5409/wjcp.v14.i3.106778
   • Systematic review examining barriers to dental care including sensory sensitivities and shortage of autism-trained professionals, with effective interventions including sensory adaptations and interdisciplinary collaboration.
9. da Silva, S.N., Gimenez, T., Souza, R.C., Mello-Moura, A.C.V., Raggio, D.P., Morimoto, S., Lara, J.S., Soares, G.C., & Tedesco, T.K. (2017). Oral health status of children and young adults with autism spectrum disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry, 27(5), 388-398. https://doi.org/10.1111/ipd.12274
   • Systematic review and meta-analysis finding controversial data on dental caries prevalence in autism, with significantly higher prevalence of bruxism, traumatic dental injuries, and erosive tooth wear compared to typically developing children.
10. Lee, R., & Clough, S. (2024). Autism Spectrum Condition: An Update for Dental Practitioners – Part 1 & 2. British Dental Journal, 237, 801-806 & 877-882. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41415-024-8065-5 and https://doi.org/10.1038/s41415-024-8066-4
    • Two-part series updating dental practitioners on correct terminology, prevalent comorbidities, barriers to care, current UK legislation, and practical strategies for providing autism-inclusive dental care.
11. Mustafa, R., Mukhtar, M.S., Alshami, M., & Gujjar, K. (2025). Oral Hygiene Status in Children on the Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(6), 1868. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14061868
    • Cross-sectional study demonstrating significantly poorer oral hygiene and higher caries rates in autistic children compared to controls, highlighting the need for tailored interventions and specialized dental care.
12. Thomas, J. J., Becker, K. R., Breithaupt, L., et al. (2020). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (CBT-AR): Feasibility, acceptability, and proof-of-concept for children and adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 53(10), 1636-1646. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23355
    • This study provided proof-of-concept for CBT-AR in children and adolescents (ages 10-17), demonstrating that it is a feasible and acceptable treatment that leads to significant reductions in ARFID symptom severity.
13. Lock, J., Robinson, A., Sadeh-Sharvit, S., et al. (2019). Feasibility of family-based treatment for avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder in children and adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 52(6), 650-656. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23078
    • A randomised clinical trial exploring Family-Based Treatment (FBT) adapted for ARFID, showing it is a feasible intervention that supports weight gain and dietary improvement in younger patients.
14. Sullivan, P. B., Juszczak, E., Bachlet, A. M. E., et al. (2005). Gastrostomy tube feeding in children with cerebral palsy: a prospective, longitudinal study. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 47(2), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0012162205000162
    • A longitudinal study demonstrating significant improvements in weight gain and growth in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities following gastrostomy placement, alongside reduced feeding times.
15. James, R. M., et al. (2012). Timing of gastrostomy insertion in children with a neurodisability. BMJ Open, 2(6), e001793. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001793
    • A systematic review highlighting that gastrostomy insertion is effective for improving nutritional status and physical health in children with neurodisabilities, though timing should be individualized.
16. Jennuvat, S. (2023). The Outcomes and Quality of Life in Children with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities after Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 106(1), 88–94.
    • A study assessing post-gastrostomy outcomes, reporting significant improvements in nutritional status and caregiver-reported quality of life, with reduced feeding-related stress.
17. Backman, E., & Sjögreen, L. (2020). Gastrostomy tube insertion in children with developmental or acquired disorders: a register-based study. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 62(9), 1075-1082.
    • A large register-based study confirming that gastrostomy is a safe and effective intervention for nutritional support in children with developmental disorders, often leading to stabilized weight and health.

Helpful Resources

For UK Parents and Families

Feeding, Nutrition & ARFID Resources (Specific):

• ARFID Awareness UK: https://www.arfidawarenessuk.org/ – Comprehensive information, resources, treatment approaches, and support for parents and professionals; includes downloadable resources and shop with cards to inform schools/restaurants
• CNTW NHS Foundation Trust ARFID Resources: https://www.cntw.nhs.uk/resource-library/support-for-avoidant-restrictive-food-intake-disorder-arfid/ – Free video webinar series (8 modules) for parents, practical tools, advice resources, and communication guides created by specialist ARFID dietitian
• North East and North Cumbria NHS ARFID Support: https://northeastnorthcumbria.nhs.uk/here-to-help-you/health-advice-and-support/children-and-young-people-support/help-for-eating-issues/ – Practical strategies for supporting children with eating difficulties
• Beat Eating Disorders – ARFID Information: https://www.beateatingdisorders.org.uk/get-information-and-support/about-eating-disorders/types/arfid/ – National eating disorder charity with information and support services
• Beat – Endeavour Support Group: https://www.beateatingdisorders.org.uk/get-information-and-support/support-someone-else/endeavour-arfid-carer-support-group/ – 8-week peer support group for parents/carers of children aged 5-15 with ARFID behaviours, delivered via Zoom
• British Dietetic Association ARFID Information: https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/arfid-help-my-child-wont-eat.html – Professional guidance on ARFID for parents and healthcare professionals
• British Dietetic Association: https://www.bda.uk.com/ – Find registered dietitians specialising in paediatric autism
• Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists: https://www.rcslt.org/ – Information on feeding therapy and finding local speech and language therapists

General Autism & Family Support:

• NHS Autism Support: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/autism/support/ – Information on local support groups, financial benefits, and services
• Autism Central: https://www.autismcentral.org.uk/ – NHS-funded peer education programme offering autism resources, coaching, and training for families and carers across England
• NHS England Autism Resources: https://www.england.nhs.uk/learning-disabilities/about/autism/ – Guidance on accessing services and mental health support
• National Autistic Society: https://www.autism.org.uk/ – UK’s leading autism charity with comprehensive information, helpline (0808 800 4104), and local services directory
• Ambitious About Autism: https://www.ambitiousaboutautism.org.uk/ – Support for children, young people, and families with practical advice and resources
• Autism Education Trust: https://www.autismeducationtrust.org.uk/parents – Resources for parents to support autistic children in education
• Contact (for families with disabled children): https://contact.org.uk/ – Helpline: 0808 808 3555 – Advice on accessing services and support

Dental Care Resources:

• National Autistic Society – Dental Care Guide: https://www.autism.org.uk/advice-and-guidance/topics/physical-health/going-to-the-dentist – Comprehensive guidance for families and dentists on autism-friendly dental care
• NHS England Special Care Dentistry: https://www.england.nhs.uk/commissioning/wp-content/uploads/sites/12/2015/09/guid-comms-specl-care-dentstry.pdf – Guidance on accessing specialist dental services
• Oliver McGowan Mandatory Training: https://www.e-lfh.org.uk/programmes/the-oliver-mcgowan-mandatory-training-on-learning-disability-and-autism/ – Free e-learning for healthcare professionals including dental staff
• NHS Mouth Care Matters: Available through e-Learning for Healthcare – Training module specifically for caring for oral health of autistic children
• Community Dental Services: Contact your local NHS trust for referrals to specialist dental services for those unable to access general dental practice

For US Parents and Families

Feeding, Nutrition & ARFID Resources (Specific):

• ARFID Collaborative: https://www.arfidcollaborative.com/ – Directory of ARFID specialists including psychologists, dietitians, and therapists across the USA
• Feeding Matters: https://www.feedingmatters.org/ – National non-profit dedicated to paediatric feeding disorders, with educational resources and support
• Boston Children’s Hospital ARFID Program: https://www.childrenshospital.org/programs/arfid – Comprehensive ARFID program with medical, nutritional, and psychological support; includes guide to local ARFID feeding therapy and SLP resources
• Stanford Medicine Children’s Health ARFID Program: https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/services/eating-disorders/arfid.html – Specialized treatment for ages 9-24 with inpatient and outpatient options
• Children’s Health Dallas ARFID Program: https://www.childrens.com/specialties-services/specialty-centers-and-programs/psychiatry-and-psychology/conditions-and-programs/avoidant-restrictive-food-intake-disorder – 4-week intensive outpatient program for ages 5-17
• Duke Center for Eating Disorders ARFID Program: https://www.dukehealth.org/treatments/psychiatry/eating-disorders/avoidantrestrictive-food-intake-disorder-arfid – Parent training workshops and immersive family programs
• The Emily Program – ARFID Treatment: https://emilyprogram.com/eating-disorders-we-treat/avoidant-restrictive-food-intake-disorder/ – Residential and outpatient ARFID treatment with family-based approach
• American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA): https://www.asha.org/ – Information on feeding and swallowing disorders; find certified SLPs
• Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: https://www.eatright.org/ – Find registered dietitian nutritionists specialising in autism
• Marcus Autism Center Nutrition Resources: https://www.marcus.org/autism-resources – Evidence-based feeding and nutrition guidance

General Autism & Family Support:

• Autism Speaks: https://www.autismspeaks.org/ – Resource guide, tool kits, and family services including the Autism Response Team (888-288-4762)
• Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN): https://autisticadvocacy.org/ – Resources from autistic-led organisation
• Organization for Autism Research: https://researchautism.org/ – Evidence-based resources and guides for families
• The Arc: https://thearc.org/ – Advocacy organisation for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities, including autism
• Family Voices: https://familyvoices.org/ – Family-led organisation providing support for families of children with special health care needs
• CDC Autism Information: https://www.cdc.gov/autism/ – Information on signs, diagnosis, treatment, and data

Dental Care Resources:

• Autism Speaks Dental Tool Kit: https://www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit/dentist-for-kids-with-autism – Practical guide for families preparing for dental visits, including visual supports and communication strategies
• IBCCES Certified Autism Centers: https://www.certifiedautismcenter.com/ – Directory of dental practices certified as autism-friendly after completing specialized training
• Special Care Dentistry Association: https://www.scdaonline.org/ – Professional organization with resources for finding dentists trained in special needs care
• University of British Columbia CIRCA – Autism and Neurodiversity in Dentistry: https://circa.educ.ubc.ca/autism-and-neurodiversity-in-dentistry/ – Free online training program for dental professionals (also valuable for families to understand best practices)

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This article is intended for educational purposes. Parents should work with their child’s healthcare team before making significant dietary changes or starting supplements. The resources listed above are provided for informational purposes and do not constitute endorsement.